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Introduction

The world of wine can be pretty intimidating if you’re in unfamiliar territory. Aristotle once famously said, “The more you know, the more you know you don’t know.” It’s safe to say this quote accurately describes the subject of wine, the nature of which is complex and infinite. Wine was enjoyed by people even long before Aristotle was alive, in fact scientists recently ancient pottery fragments that contained residual wine compounds dating back to 5,980 BC. Wine has come quite a long way since then, and we are incredibly lucky to be living in a day and age where we can reflect over the history of wine while sipping on a glass of the thing itself. The evolution of technology, agriculture, art, and culture have transformed wine over the past several thousand years. And although many people dedicate themselves to achieving a complete understanding of the subject, you don’t have to know everything there is to know about wine in order to appreciate and enjoy it. It does, however, help to know a little!

I’ve decided to share my resources and knowledge to help you gain a foundational understanding, and hopefully an appreciation, for wine. If you’re starting from square one or even hoping to learn more, then you’ve found the right book. I’ll cover several topics related to wine ranging from basic winemaking, famous regions like Burgundy and Rioja, and— for those of you who sell wine—how to boost wine sales. To bring you value, I’ve even included a list at the end of interesting wine facts you may not know. I’ve crafted this book to be informative, entertaining, and memorable so that you can carry your knowledge long and far. My ultimate goal is that by learning more about wine, you’ll appreciate it more, own your preferences, and even confidently share your discoveries with others so they too can learn more about and appreciate wine further on a deeper level.

Having wine preferences is a good thing! People who are passionate about wine are often looked down upon because there are many wine aficionados with a sense of entitlement. What you like or don’t like is simply your personal taste, and that’s ok. Not everyone has to agree with you, and you may not agree with the opinions of even the most revered wine critics. That being said, it’s also ok to be proud of your wine preferences, to confidently express yourself through wine, and even respectfully guide people toward better wine choices.

This book was a learning process for me in many different ways, and I truly hope you enjoy reading it as much as I’ve enjoyed piecing it together. It’s important to note that portions of this book may seem short-sighted in terms of the global wine industry—this is because my learnings have been largely influenced by a western perspective. I recognize that the subject of wine is subjective, but I hope that opinions do not prevent any readers from furthering their overall education and growth. Please pass this little book along to someone deserving, so they too can experience the wonderful feeling that arises when you enrich your life with a more complete wine education. Cheers to your personal growth, and cheers to the world of wine!

Chapter 1: The Basics

What is Wine?

Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grape juice. Wine can technically be made from other fruits like peaches and apples; however, these beverages cannot be marketed as true wine. The grapes used to make wine are not the same as the grapes we snack on or ‘table grapes.’ Wine grapes are usually smaller, they contain larger seeds, are more acidic, have thicker skins, and have more sugar. Most wine grapes come from the grape species Vitis vinifera, and these vines produce lower fruit yields when compared to table grape vines. In other words, wine grapes are far more expensive than table grapes.

Your first term to know is varietal, which refers to the 10,000 plus types of wine grapes around the world. The most popular varietal in the world is Cabernet Sauvignon. Other common grape types include Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Merlot, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, and Tempranillo to name a few. The type of grape that goes into a bottle of wine determines the type of wine produced. For example, if you purchased a bottle of wine that was produced using 100% Chardonnay grapes, then you would have a bottle of Chardonnay. On the other hand, if you had a bottle of wine made from one-part Cabernet Sauvignon, one-part Merlot, and one-part Petit Verdot, then you would have a red blend. Remember, the term varietal means type of grape, and the type of grape used to produce a batch of wine determines the type of wine in the bottle.

How is Wine Made?

In order to truly appreciate wine for what it is, you have to understand the basic winemaking process. Grapes take an entire year to grow and ripen, so the fate of wine is always at the mercy of weather and climate conditions. Harvest season depends on where you are in the world—in the Northern Hemisphere this typically falls between August and October, and in the Southern Hemisphere between February and April. When grapes are ready to be picked, many growers harvest them at night. Exposing grapes to sun and high temperatures changes their sugar composition, and too much or too little sugar can actually ruin wine. Picking at night also means lower harvesting temperatures, which allows winemakers to have more control over sugar content. This also means pickers can work longer hours, in better conditions.

Some grapes are picked using machines that straddle vines and shake bunches of grapes off as they drive down the rows. Some grapes are picked by hand. Hand-picking grapes is a gentler but slower process, so many wineries harvest the grapes used only in their flagship wines by hand. Certain grapes, like the delicate Pinot Noir, are also more prone to damage, meaning they demand careful handling. However, some winemakers don’t have a choice because their regional wine laws actually mandate that grapes be picked by hand.

Now it’s time is to remove clusters from their stems and lightly crush the grapes, which is done using a combination of machinery and careful hands. The next step in the winemaking process varies depending on the type of wine being produced e.g., red, white or sparkling. This requires a lengthier explanation, so let’s save it for the following chapter. Generally speaking, the product is then transferred to tanks in which fermentation will take place. Fermentation is the organic process by which yeast converts grape sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The type of yeast most frequently used in winemaking is called Saccharomyces cerevisiae, although some winemakers prefer using native yeasts that naturally occur in the winery or vineyard so that the wine stays true to the land from which it came.

[Callout: Fermentation is the organic process by which yeast converts grape sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide.]

Yeast is a fungus that likes to mutate and many of the variant strains cannot be used, so finding viable strains for winemaking is important. Winemakers then ‘rack’ their wine about a week into fermentation. Racking is simply the process by which wine is transferred from one fermenter to another to unwanted leave sediment behind. Leaving wine in contact with large amounts of sediment can throw off the flavors, so this step is typically repeated multiple times throughout the winemaking process.

When the yeast has transformed enough sugar in the grape juice to produce enough alcohol, the resulting alcohol actually kills off the yeast. After fermentation is complete, the wine is then racked one last time to remove remaining sediments and dead yeast cells, but this time it’s transferred to barrels to begin the aging process. The type of barrels used, and aging times, depend entirely on the goals of the winemaker. They might choose to age a wine for many months or even up to several years. They might use oak barrels or stainless-steel ones. Oak barrels are porous, which allows the wine to come in contact with oxygen. This softens the texture of wine and gives it a creamier, broader feel on the palate. Stainless-steel barrels keep wine crisp, giving it a striking effect when it hits the palate (see chart below for more wine barrel facts). Also, aging gives wine a chance to undergo complex chemical reactions involving present sugars, acids, and tannins, which can add to the characteristic and value of it. Tannins are bitter organic compounds that come from plants and cause the mouth to feel dry. Tea and walnuts are also examples of tannic goods. It’s important to note that most wines are not aged, and even aged wines are not typically aged for very long. Wine does not always improve with age.

Approximately 90% of wine is meant to be consumed within a year of being produced, 99% of wine within five years, and only about 1% of wine beyond five years. The fruitiness of a wine rapidly decreases during aging, so winemakers have to be strategic. It’s not considered economical to age cheap wines, which is why most bottles under $20 are not very old. Wines that are more tannic—like Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo, Syrah, and Cabernet Franc— are better for longer aging. More acidic wines—like Pinot Noir and Sangiovese—are also good for aging. Although white wines are more acidic than reds, they’re generally not tannic, so they don’t age as well. Chardonnay is one of the few white varietals that ages well in oak barrels. Chardonnay also has high acidity, which creates opportunity for nice aging.

[Callout: Only 1% of wine is intended to be consumed beyond five years of being produced.]

Common Types of Wine Barrels

Stainless Steel

• Leads to more fruit-forward aromas and flavors
• Produces fresh and crisp wine
• Gives winemaker more control over wine flavors
• Non-poruous, so no evaporation occurs (on the contrary, wooden barrels allow for evaporation, intensifying flavors and aromatics)
• Reusable and easier to clean
• Allows for the truest expression of the grape(s) used in production

New Oak

• Made with fresh, unused oak
• Transfers rich, bold aromas/flavors to wine like oak, vanilla, smoke, coconut, and coconut
• Intensely influences the aromas and flavors of the wine

Neutral Oak

• Barrels have been previously used to age wine for three years
• Similar to a used bag of tea, the wood has lost much of its flavor
• Does not add flavor to wine, but rather softens it

French Oak

• Offers more subtle, spicy aromas/flavors including dark chocolate, roasted coffee beans, cinnamon, and nutmeg
• Most expensive option due to higher wood tannins, a tighter grain, and higher production costs
• Produces silkier tannins

American Oak

• Offers sweeter aromas/flavors such as vanilla, coconut, and sweet spices
• Dill and even dill pickle are also common descriptors of wine aged in these barrels
• Denser and can be sawn instead of hand-split, so barrels require less labor and are cheaper

Hungarian Oak

• Accounts for about 4% of world wine barrel production
• Made from the same tree as French Oak, but tends to have slightly different flavors that are darker and reminiscent of asphalt or clay
• Slightly cheaper than French Oak due to lower local labor costs

‘Toasted’

• Insides have been exposed to fire or “toasted,” which caramelizes the wood’s natural sugars and brings out complex compounds
• Offers a variety of aromas/flavors—depending on how long the wood has been toasted—including vanilla, honey, caramel, toast, espresso, molasses, butterscotch, etc.

Once wine has been barrel-aged, it’s often racked again to remove all remaining sediments before bottling. Bottles must be free of any organic matter and sanitized prior to filling. Once they’re corked and foil sealed—or capped in the case of a twist off—they’re packaged in cases ranging from twelve bottles for average wines, to six bottles for higher-end wines. Premium wine bottles are often stored in dark, cool cellars for a second round of aging. Bottle-aging is important because wine is a living thing and needs time to settle. Bottle-aging also gives wine a chance to reach an oxygen ‘sweet-spot’ of six parts per million (ppm). We actually begin to taste the difference if oxygen levels are higher than six ppm.

Chapter 2: Types of Wine

You may be surprised to learn that all grapes are actually the same color on the inside, regardless of their exterior skin color. Red grapes can actually be used to make white wine and vice versa. Wine actually gets its color from a process called maceration. In the wine industry, maceration is the process where grape juice remains in contact with grape stems, seeds, and skins for a period of time. Together, this solid grape material is called pomace. During maceration, the liquid extracts color, aroma, and tannins from the solid material. This process largely defines a wine’s character.

[Callout: All grapes are the same color on the inside, regardless of their exterior skin color.]

Maceration begins the moment the grapes burst during crushing, and it ends as soon as the liquid is removed from the pomace. The length of maceration depends on the type of wine is being produced, the goals of the winemaker, and the varietal(s) being used. Grapes like Merlot and Cabernet Franc benefit from long maceration, while others are too delicate to remain in contact with the pomace for a long time. Now that you understand basic winemaking and maceration, let’s dive into the different types of wine and how to make them.

Red Wine

Red wine has been produced and enjoyed by people all around the world for thousands of years—even Jesus drank it. Most red wine is made from red or dark grape varietals, and its production involves a lengthy maceration period. After grapes have been picked and crushed, the mixture of juice and pomace is transferred to fermentation tanks. These vessels can be made out of a variety of material including concrete and clay; however, most wineries typically use stainless steel. Once in a tank, the pomace separates from the juice and rises to the top to form a solid layer known as a cap. The cap must be continually broken and reintegrated with the juice so contact between the pomace and juice is maximized. This can be done by pumping the juice over the cap several times a day, or by physically punching down the cap. Red wine is then aged for some time before bottling to soften tannins and add to the overall flavor profile.

Listed below are the top red wine varietals—each type of grape has a distinct tannin level, tasting profile, acid level, skin color, etc.

• Cabernet Sauvignon
• Merlot
• Pinot Noir
• Malbec
• Cabernet Franc
• Petit Verdot
• Grenache
• Sangiovese
• Nebbiolo
• Tempranillo
• Zinfandel
• Syrah
• Petit Syrah
• Shiraz (Australian Syrah)
• Gamay
• Montepulciano
• Carménère
• Pinot Meunier

White Wine

White wine has been around for just a long as red wine, in fact, the Ancient Egyptian pharaoh Cleopatra had a knack for sweet Muscat wine. Most white wine is made using white or light grape varietals, but red or dark grapes can be used as well. Maceration is not used to make whites, although this hasn’t always been the case historically. Since there is no grape-skin contact, white wine stays light in color and has low tannin levels compared to red wine. Here are the top white wine varietals:

• Chardonnay
• Sauvignon Blanc
• Pinot Grigio
• Riesling
• Gewürztraminer
• Chenin Blanc
• Pinot Gris
• Sémillon
• Moscato
• Muscadelle
• Muscadet
• Prosecco
• Arneis
• Viognier
• Albariño

Rosé

Rosé wine is a pink or light red wine that’s made using both white and red varietals. A common assumption is that rosé is made simply by combining red and white wine. Its signature pink color and light body are actually achieved through short maceration. The liquid from crushed grapes has minimal skin contact, which prevents the wine from turning dark or tannic. Rosé can be still or sparkling and is meant to be enjoyed soon after release, while it’s still young.

Sparkling

Sparkling wine is distinguished by the presence of carbon dioxide, which makes it fizzy and fun. Bubblies are typically rosé or white, however sparkling reds such as Lambrusco are gaining popularity. The light, effervescence of sparkling has wine has long been associated with celebration. The tradition of an honorary champagne toast can be found in countries all over the world. Any wine can be called sparkling as long as it contains significant levels of carbon dioxide, however true Champagne can only be produced in the Champagne region of France. There are very strict laws that govern the production of wine in Champagne, which is typically made using a combination of red and white grapes.

True Champagne is made via traditional method or Méthode Champenoise, which involves two fermentation stages—one in a barrel and then another in a bottle. During secondary fermentation, more yeast and sugar are added to the wine. Remember, when yeast converts sugar, it releases carbon dioxide. Secondary fermentation is the very process that puts bubbles in the bottle. Although some may consider this phrase to be an oxymoron, premium sparkling wine has great aging potential thanks to the preserving effects of carbon dioxide and high acidity.

Sweet

Sweet wines come in many colors and generally have higher sugar and lower alcohol content. Many of these wines have not fully undergone a complete fermentation process, so they end up with more residual sugar and less alcoholic than your typical wines. Sweet wines can also be made by genetically modifying grapes to have higher sugar content, or by simply adding more sugar during production. The opposite of sweet wine is dry wine or wine with no residual sugar.

Ice wine is an increasingly popular type of sweet wine that was invented by accident and is made with great difficulty. Grapes with higher acidity such as Riesling, Cabernet Franc, and Gewürztraminer are picked at night, in the dark, and in below-freezing temperatures.